EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER I - MEANING, NATURE, AND SCOPE

Origin and History 

Evolution of Educational Technology:

• In the early period of human history, when writing was unknown, the method of presentation on the part of the teachers and citation and memorization on the part of the students was a common practice in almost all the civilizations of the world. Socrates' teacher-pupil oral dialogue system prevalent in the west and oral teaching tradition maintained by the ancient sages in the Gurukuls of our country may be cited as a testimony of the use of relevant technology in the field of teaching-learning at a particular age in the progress of human civilization.

• With the advent of writing as the means and materials of communication, like writing on the leaves and tree-trunks, engraving on the metals and rocks, and then the use of some type of paper and ink material provided the next breakthrough in the use of writing technology for teaching and learning. In the time to come, it provided a great impetus in the field of teaching and learning which witnessed the use of the subject matter available in the form of printing material and textbooks, a great scientific and technological advancement.

             

 

• The use of writing and printing technology then took its next leap in helping the cause of teaching and learning by being utilized in the production and use of the instructional material like chalk or blackboards, pictures, charts, models, maps, diagrams and other graphic material.

• Later on, with the industrial development and technical advancement, sophisticated scientific instruments, mass media and educational materials were used. It brought the use of sophisticated hardware and software such as radio, television, tape recorder, films, transparency, etc. in the field of education.

• The concept of programmed instruction and theories of learning, later on, added another dimension to the meaning and concept of educational technology. This was again broadened hen the new approaches in the form of system-approach, microteaching, interaction analysis and computer assisted instruction came into existence.

Meaning and Definitions

1. G.O.M. Leith: "Educational technology is the systematic application of scientific knowledge about teaching-learning conditions of learning to improve the efficiency of teaching and training (Leith, 1967)."
2. Shiv K. Mitra: "Educational technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and methods by which educational goals could be realized (Mitra, 1968:4)."
3. S.S. Kulkarni: "Educational technology may be defined as the application of the laws as well as recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of education (Kulkarni, 1969)."
4. D. Unwin: "Educational technology is concerned with the application of modern skills and techniques to requirements of education and training. This includes the facilitation of learning by manipulation of media and methods, and the control of environment in so far as this reflects on learning (Unwin, 1969),"
5. W. Kenneth Richmond: "Educational technology is concerned with providing appropriately designed learning situations which, holding in view the objectives of teaching or training, bring to bear the best means of instruction (Richmond, 1979)."
6. I.K. Davies: "Educational technology is concerned with the problems of education and training context and it is characterized by the disciplined and systematic approach to the organization of resources for learning (Davies, 1971)."
7. J.R. Gases: "Educational technology has to be seen as part of a persistent and complex endeavour of bringing pupils, teachers and technical means together in an effective way (Ford Foundation Team, 1971)."
8. US President Commission of Enquiry: "Educational technology may be defined as a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating a total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific objectives based on findings from research in human learning and communication (cited in, Tucker, 1979:159)."
9. DES Working Party UK: "Educational technology is the development, application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids in the field of human learning (cited in, Tucker, 1979:159)."
10. Scottish Council for Educational Technology: "Educational technology is systematic approach to designing and evaluating learning and teaching methods and methodologies and to the application and exploitation of media and the current knowledge of communication techniques in education, both formal and informal (cited in, Tucker 1979:160)."

        An overview of the definition listed here reveals that there exists wide differences of opinions regarding a particular definition of the term educational technology. These definitions initially encompass the whole range of educational technology activities from the analytic methods of psychology of learning and teaching to the audio-visual communication and mass media technology. The views propagated by these definitions may help us conclude about the meaning and nature of educational technology as follows:

1. Educational technology is concerned with the systematic application of science and technology in the field of education and thus may be defined as the application of technology to education on order to further the cause of the latter.
2. Just as science and technology help in carrying out the practical task in general, educational technology helps in providing efficiency to the task of teaching and learning.
3. Educational technology provides technical guidance and solution to the problems of education.
4. Teaching is communicating and education technology can play an effective role in the communication between teacher and student. 
5. Education technology encompasses the total teaching and learning process involving the elements like the following:
• Specification of goals and behavioural objectives.
• Analysis of the characteristics of the learner.
• Selection and organization of the content or subject matter to be learned.
• Methods and strategies of the presentation of the content.
• Use of aid-material, software and hardware, mass media and communication techniques.
• Effective arrangement of learning situations and learning environment.
• Effective classroom control and management.
• Continuous feedback and evaluation of the results.
6. Educational technology is not limited to the use of audio-visual aids and does not symbolize merely educational hardware such as the sophisticated gadgets and mechanical devices used in education. For the effective management of the total teaching-learning process it tends to utilize the results of all good, experiments and researches in the field of human learning and the art of communication and employs a combination of all possible human and non-human resources to achieve the desired educational objectives.

     In brief, educational technology should stand for a wise application of the available human and non-human resources for providing appropriate solution to the educational problems and to improve the processes and products of education. 

The Nature of Educational Technology

To understand the nature of educational technology, let us try to view it from the following angles:

1. Evolution of the concept of educational technology.
2. Existing position and latest concept.
3. Distinction from other related concepts.

1. Evolution of the Concept of Educational Technology

It may be discussed in detail as follows:

• The earliest concept of educational technology was linked with the use of audio-visual aids like charts, models, maps, specimen and concrete material. In this sense, the term educational technology was used as a synonym to audio-visual aids meant for direct teaching and learning.
• With the advent of physical science and consequently the electronic revolution there came an era of sophisticated hardware and software (gadgets and mechanical devices) like projectors, tape recorders, radio and television. As a result, educational technology was taken in terms of these sophisticated instruments and equipment used for presenting instructional material. 
• Then came the age of mass media. It led to a massive communication revolution for instructional purposes. Utilization of radio, television, tele-text and computer assisted instructions for Individualized learning, thus, brought more sophistication in the use of appliances and instruments for formal and informal education. 
• With the advent of programmed learning and programmed instruction concept, a new dimension of educational technology came into the educational horizon. It tried to individualize the process of education and introduced a system of self-learning in the form of designed self-instructional material and teaching machine. As a result, educational technology was regarded as being concerned with the preparation and use of individualized instruction or self-instructional programmed material, leading to the use of teaching machine for auto-instruction or learning. 
• The concept of programmed learning added another dimension to the meaning of educational technology when some new devices approaches like wide applications of the theories of learning and teachings, micro-teaching, analysis of behaviour and system approach etc. came into existence. 

2. The Existing Position and Latest Concept

     Although the term 'educational technology' has been in vogue in several decades, yet on account of its complex nature involving many disciplines and demanding too much specialization and understanding of the planning, processing and products of education, it has been narrowly conceived by different individuals depending on where one works and stands within the educational spectrum. It has resulted in the formation of varying concepts of educational technology. For example, for those who are working in audio-visual aids, educational technology is confined to the use of audio-visual aids, while mass media experts emphasize the importance of sophisticated hardware, software and communication technology. For the experts of programmed learning and individualized instruction, it means the programming of the self-instructional material and use of teaching machines or computer-aided learning material. There are others who tend to look at educational technology only from the management point of view and consider it as an application of system approach to teaching-learning. 

     In this way, in actual sense, educational technology exists, to a very large extent, in a fragmented way not only in India but also globally. As a result, in any course or scheme of educational technology related to B. Ed., M.A. or M.Phil. (Education) of the universities in India and abroad, we find significant diversification in terms of objectives, topics and the coverage of contents. However, serious attempts are now being made to arrive at some general consensus to end the confusion and debate regarding the concept of systems engineering or systems approach originated from computer science. According to this concept, educational technology is more than the sum of its parts. It is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluation of the total process of learning and communication leading to a combination of human and non-human resources reorganized into an efficient and economic system for the best possible results. In other words, it means a systems approach adopted in the field of education to organize educational systems, keeping in view the broad objectives and the available resources.

     This aspect of educational technology carries a wide meaning and multifaceted concepts. It emphasizes the application of systems approach to the study of the multidimensional problems of education. Some of these problem areas are as follows:

• The educational planning and organization.
• The psychology of learning.
• The curriculum development and course design.
• The production of teaching-learning material.
• Audio-visual method of presentation and dissemination of information, storage and retrieval.
• The allocation and management of human and non-human resources. 
• The cost-effectiveness of media in education.
• Innovation.
• Evaluation.

3. Educational Technology and other Related Concepts

The concept and meaning of educational technology may be made a little more clear by distinguishing it from other related concepts.

Educational technology and instructional technology

These two terms should not be considered as synonymous. Educational technology is a more comprehensive and broad-based concept. Instructional technology is a subsystem of the main system of educational technology. Education is a comprehensive process and imparting of instruction is one of the several means to achieve the goals of education. As a result, the technology of instruction may be regarded as a part and section of the whole phenomenon of technology of education.

     In strict sense, instructional technology is concerned with determining and providing appropriate stimuli to the learner to produce certain type of responses for making learning more effective. In other words, instructional technology determines the media, methods and material that may be used in a given teaching-learning situation for attaining the stipulated instructional objectives. On the other hand, educational technology is concerned with the scientific use of the available human and non-human resources for solving various problems of education (including instruction) for optimizing the results of the whole teaching-learning process. 

Educational technology and teaching technology

Like instructional technology, teaching technology is also one of the sub-types of the systems of educational technology. It concerns with the systematization of the process of teaching and provides necessary theory and practice for the teachers to bring improvement in the task of teaching. The concept of instructional technology is much wider than the concept of teaching technology as it also includes the means and material concerning individualized instruction and self-learning including teaching machines and computer-assisted learning, independent of the teachers and their sets.

     Teaching technology is merely a specialized branch of educational technology which is meant for the teachers and the teaching process. While education, as a whole, can never be limited merely to the teaching process or teacher's task, educational technology can never be confined to teaching technology only. It is much more than mere teaching or instructional technology. 

Technology of education and technology in education

The term 'technology in education' refers to the use of technological advancement such as various equipment, material and machines for education purposes. It involves the increasingly complex range of audio-visual equipment, hardware and sophisticated electronic devices like projectors, films, radio, television, tape recorder, teaching machines, tele-text and computer aided instructions for individualized and group learning. 

     The term technology in education is thus a service concept like technology in the service of farming or agriculture or science in the service of mankind. In this sense, educational technology can provide its services to the teachers on the following grounds:

1. For explaining the purpose and functions of different forms of appliances, equipment and audio-visual material and mass media.
2. For providing training in acquiring the material and handling the equipment to overcome their reluctance to use new media and material.
3. For showing the relevance of the use of the equipment and material in the context of individualized and group learning for achieving the goals of formal or non-formal education.

     The term 'technology of education' or 'educational technology' cannot limit itself to the role of service as confined in the case of technology in education. The term, technology of education, does not represent something added or helped from outside as sounded in the case of technology in education.It signifies a system or technological approach to the problems of education. Emphasizing on this point of view, T.K. Robinson (1976) writes:

The strongest protagonists of educational technology are not, however, satisfied with a role limited to technology in education and the provisions of audio-visual aids. they see themselves as crucially involved in the designs and evaluation of systems of learning involving an understanding of the psychology of learning and of communication and information theory to be used to established a rational for good teaching practice which uses a variety of media and modes and which enables the teacher to deploy his skills more effectively and apply them more widely. This is technology of education. 

In view of the discussion carried out in the above, the following conclusions can be drawn about the concept of educational technology:

1. Educational technology cannot be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids, and technology in education emphasizes the concept of service, i.e. the use of different equipment, gadgets, and mass media. 
2. Educational technology must mean technology of education presenting itself as a system for bringing improvement in the total process of teaching-learning by carefully analyzing its problems and reorganizing all available resources in an economic way for obtaining the optimum results.
3. Educational technology cannot be viewed in terms of its parts or processes. Instructional technology, teaching technology, behaviour technology, programmed learning, micro-teaching, system analysis, management of teaching-learning, teacher or pupil behaviour, etc. are all its constituents and resources. Not a single one of these alone is enough to represent the concept of educational technology. All these branches, innovations, approaches, and strategies should be integrated as a whole according to the needs and requirements of the system represented by educational technology at a particular time in a given situation for accomplishing its useful objectives.

Objectives of Educational Technology

Educational technology, in the capacity of technology of education, provides valuable help in the total teaching-learning process for achieving the best possible results in an economic way through the available human and non-human resources. In this respect, the major objectives of education technology can be summarized as follows:

Objectives at the Macro Level

In the view of the broad educational goals, i.e. the macro level, the objectives of educational technology can be listed in the following way:

1. To identify educational needs and aspirations of the community.
2. To determine the aims of education, broad strategies and structure of education.
3. To develop a suitable curriculum with interaction of science, art and human values.
4. To identify man-material resources and strategies for achieving the stipulated aims of education.
5. To develop certain models leading to improvement of the process of teaching and learning.
6. To develop the appropriate aids and equipment to meet the educational purposes. 
7. To identify major constraints in the environment and the ways and means to tackle those.
8. To help in extending educational opportunities to the masses especially the neglected section of the community.
9. To manage the whole educational system covering planning, implementation and the evaluation phases.

Objectives at the Micro Level

In the view of the specific classroom teaching, i.e. the micro level, the objectives of educational technology are as follows:

1. To identify and analyze the characteristics and educational needs of the pupils.
2. To determine the specific classroom objectives and state then in behavioural terms.
3. To analyze the contents of the instruction and organize it in a proper sequence.
4. To identify the available teaching-learning material and resources.
5. To identify the nature of the interaction of the sub-systems like students, teachers, teaching-learning material, content of instruction and methodologies.
6.  To plan the teaching strategies and utilize the man-material resources for achieving specific classroom objectives.
7. To evaluate the effectiveness of the classroom teaching in the terms of the pupil's performance or change in behaviour.
8. To provide appropriate feedback to the students as well as teachers to bring modification in the teaching-learning process.

Forms of Educational Technology

Educational technology, as has already been discussed, has a wide range of scope and applicability in the field of education. In a broader sense, it stands for the application of the principles and techniques of science and technology as well as psychology and pedagogy in the activities of teaching and learning. As a result, it has been capable of providing necessary ways and means, theoretical as well as practical, for improving the processes and products of teaching-learning related to both formal and informal education. With such a broad concept, educational technology has formed its roots and wings in certain distinct aspects and forms in various courses and programmers related to the study and application of educational technology. These forms of educational technology, in general, can be listed as follows:

1. Teaching technology
2. Instructional technology
3. Behavioural technology
4. Instructional design technology.

1. Teaching technology

     Teaching technology is concerned with the task of systematization of the process of teaching. However, teaching cannot merely be treated as a sum total of certain teaching skills. Although it is true that being a skilled job it involves certain specific skills, yet a mere acquisition of these skills does not make an individual a teacher. A teacher has to play the role of a technician by learning the art and science of teaching. In this sense, teaching must be regarded as a technology that a teacher should try to know and practice well if he/she wishes to be successful in his/her teaching job. Like a proper technician, he must be able to do his job effectively.

     If a teacher is in a position to make use of technology in teaching, he/she must be well equipped with the technological skills like the following, besides having a good knowledge o mastery over the subject matter:

1. Communication skill.
2. Skill of interaction with his/her students.
3. Skill of making the students to learn and think independently and
4. Skill of evaluating and reinforcing pupil's learning behaviour, etc. 

Fundamental principles and characteristics of teaching technology

Teaching technology, as suggested by E.G. Vedanayagam (1988), can be distinguished because of certain characteristics and fundamental principles as follows:

1. Teaching is a scientific process and its major components are content, communication, and feedback.
2. There is a close relationship between teaching and learning.
3. It is possible to modify, improve and develop the teaching-learning activities.
4. The terminal behaviour of the learner, in terms of learning structures, can be established by appropriate teaching environment.
5. Teaching skills can be developed and strengthened by means of feedback devices with or without sophisticated techniques.
6. Pre-determined learning objectives can be achieved by designing suitable teaching activities.
7. Use of achievement motivation technique enhances the output of the teacher and the learner.

Contents of teaching technology

Teaching technology possess certain basic things in the shape of the philosophy and acts of teaching. A teacher has to imbibe the art and techniques of this technology. How should a teacher in practice proceed for the use of teaching technology in the process of teaching-learning? This apect has been closely analyze by scholars like Glazer, Bruner, Gagne and Davies, Davies (1971), in his work Management of Learning, has presented the contents of teaching technology in the shape of four steps:

1. Planning of teaching - Through its first step, teaching technology helps a teacher to plan the details of his teaching journey travelled along with his/her student. For this purpose, it tells that a teacher must first try to formulate teaching-learning objectives to be realized through the ongoing teaching-learning process and then very carefully plan for the realization of these set objectives by taking care of (i) the entry behavior of the learners, (ii) selection of appropriate learning experiences, (iii) selection of proper teaching methods, strategies and aid material, and (iv) creating a conducive and helpful environment for proper teaching-learning.
2. Organization of teaching - In its second step, teaching technology supplies the necessary knowledge and skills to the concerned teacher for arranging, relating and organizing all the available teaching-learning resources, men and material, for the proper realization of the set teaching-learning objectives in the most effective, efficient, and economic way possible.
3. Leading of teaching - The content of teaching technology in this step provide necessary knowledge and skills for a teacher to motivate, encourage, and guide and thus, lead his students on the path of learning for the realization of the set teaching-learning objectives.
4. Controlling of teaching - through its last step of managing teaching, the contents of teaching technology may help a teacher to acquire necessary knowledge and skill for the proper measurement and assessment of the teaching-learning outcomes, i.e., the output of his/her teaching in the view of the set teaching-learning objectives. 

2. Instructional Technology

• Instructional technology is a kind of educational technology that is meant for helping the instructor and the learner in the desired instructional task or the realization of the stipulated instructional objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation
• Must be regarded as a subsystem of educational technology that is purely concerned with the process of imparting instruction to the learner for realizing the stipulated instructional objectives which is mostly cognitive (development of knowledge and understanding)
• A subsystem of educational technology which helps the instructor or the learner himself as a part of his self learning or auto instruction by determining the media, methods and material for the realization of the stipulated instructional objectives in a given teaching-learning situation.

Things to consider before setting instructional objectives:

• Age and grade level of the learner
• Physical, emotional, social and mental potential of the learner.
• Previous experiences of the learner related to the subject and topic.
• Man material resources available for imparting instruction

Taking decision about the instructional material

• Select the teaching-learning experiences.
• Organize and integrate the teaching-learning properly for utilizing in the course of instruction.
• Divide instructional material into properly related and sequenced units.

Taking decision about the media and methods

• There are varieties of media and methods available for imparting instruction.
• No single media or method is suitable for all types of instruction or a particular type of instruction in all teaching learning situation.
• One has to take proper decision about the selection of a particular teaching-learning situations.

Taking decision about the proper instructional environment

• Instructional technology makes one aware or conscious of the need, selection and organization of a suitable instructional environment,

Helping in the task of evaluation

• Evaluation is the real key and controlling agency of any type of instructional activity carried out by the teacher or learner in the shape of auto instruction. 

3. Behavioral Technology

• May be utilized to study and bring modification in the behavior of all living organisms.
• May also include behavior modification strategies which are not based on learning principles. 
• Popularizes by B.F. Skinner while making use of his theory, Operant Conditioning for bringing the desired modifications in the behavior or living organisms.

Use and application of behavioral technology

1. Analysis of behavior
2. Setting the target behavior
3. Providing suitable ways and means for behavior modification
• the learners to acquire the desired learning experiences in terms of knowledge, understanding, skills, application and values by bringing changes in their entry behavior
• the teachers by suggesting ways and means for bringing changes in the learning and acquisition behavior of their students.
• the parents, teachers, educational administrators, guidance personnel and social workers, by suggesting suitable technology for the prevention and treatment of behavioral problems and disorders.
• the parents and teachers to work with their children and students for the optimum growth and development of the desirable personality traits and behavioral acts.
• the teacher in learning proper teacher behavior and acquiring needed teaching skills through special behavioral technology techniques like interaction analysis, micro-teaching, simulated teaching, action research etc.
• the teachers to manage properly the classroom behavior and interaction of their students aimed at creating proper conducive environment for effective teaching-learning. 

4. Instructional Design Theory

• Instruction as a process stands for helping the individual as a learned for achieving the stipulated teaching-learning objectives. A good instruction is always goal-oriented with a specific purpose or purposes implying that the manner in which a learner is imparted instruction (assisted in his learning process) should always be a well-conceived, planned and effectively controlled phenomenon. Educational technology, with one of its various domain/forms, namely instructional design technology, brings out effective instructional designs for improving the process and products of instruction. 

Approaches of Educational Technology

1. Educational Technology I or Hardware Approach

• has its origin in physical sciences and engineering and based on the concept of service, i.e., using technology in education (Silverman 1968)
• audio-visual aids such as charts, models, slides, filmstrips, audio cassettes and sophisticated equipment and gadgets such as radio, television, films, projectors, taper recorder, records player, video, teaching machines and computer may mean to use the technological advancement in the world of communication for educational purposes.
• the mass media movement, a result of this approach, is now contributing a lot to reach the educational benefit to masses with great ease and in a cost-effective way. 
• hardware approach to education has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational means and reducing the cost of education
• However, this approach tries to enter education from outside, operating more in isolation than in combination. 
• Almost all material and equipment of hardware approach originally belong to areas other than education and are being borrowed and utilized for educational purposes.

2. Educational Technology II or Software Approach

• owes its origin  to the behavioral sciences and their applied aspects concerning the psychology of learning.
• Psychology of learning provided solid technology for bringing the desirable behavioral changes in the students and thus serves the cause of education by laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching behavior and behavior modification devices.
• sometimes referred to as: instructional technology, teaching technology or behavior technology.
• this type of technology tries to adopt a process-oriented technique for the production of suitable teaching-learning material, teaching-learning strategies, and evaluation techniques for the optimum results in the process of teaching and learning.
• in this type and approach, educational technology basically stands for the technique of developing and utilizing software and, that is why, it is referred to as the software approach. 
• Therefore, the materials, such as the programmed material and teaching-learning strategies based on psychology of learning are usually known as software and the equipment and gadgets are called hardware. 

Role of hardware and software technologies in moderns educational practices

1. Individualization of instruction: Individualization of instruction is a major trend in the modern educational practices and is the demand of the hour. The psychology of individual differences has brought the necessity of organizing instructional process according to the needs, interests, pace, and abilities of the individual learners. Use of hardware and software technology may help in this task on account of their very nature and possibility of application. In brief, we can highlight the role of hardware and software technologies on this account by stating some of the materials and equipment as follows:
   *Programmed instructions, programmed textbooks, and programmed learning modules.
   *Teaching machines, computer assisted instruction and computer managed learning.
   *Video and audio recorded learning and instructional material.
   *Email, internet, teleconferencing, and other online educational facilities.
   *Special aid material, equipment and appliances used for special educational and adjustment measures for the disabled (physical, mental, and learning disabled)
   *Special provisions and facilities for the creative and gifted to nurture and develop their individual capacities according to their pace and interests.
2. Use of multimedia and multi-sensory approach to teaching-learning: Hardware and software technologies help the teacher as well as learners for making a proper and judicious use of the multimedia and multi-sensory aid material, equipment and principles of teaching-learning, derived from psychology and technology of teaching. It has made the use of the following possible:
   *All the sensory organs sense of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste for the acquisition of the desired teaching-learning experiences.
   *Multimedia, material and appliances involving hardware and software technologies for sharing desirable teaching-learning technologies.
   *All the relevant and needed teaching-learning methods, devices, and strategies, well accompanied and aided by hardware and software technologies.
3. Management of the affairs of educational practices in an efficient and productive way: Use of software and hardware technology may help the teacher in the task of managing his affairs related to the educational and professional responsibilities in the spheres as follows:
   *Planning of teaching-learning
   *Organization of teaching-learning
   *Leading teaching-learning
   *Controlling teaching-learning
4. Providing proper input and process for the best possible outcomes (products): In the true spirit of the system engineering, use of hardware and software technologies can help the educational and instruction systems to make all possible efforts for providing adequate outcomes, i.e, realization or stipulated teaching, learning objectives in a most efficient and cost-effective way.
5. Fulfilling the expectation of distance and correspondence education: The demands of today's education and modern educational practices are putting increasing emphasis on the extension of distance education and correspondence and online education is the need of hour and this need can only be better realized through the services of hardware and software technologies.
6. Making the task of teaching-learning interesting, purposeful and productive: Use of hardware and software technologies help both teachers and learners in the realization of their teaching-learning objectives by making the task of teaching-learning quite interesting, purposeful and productive through the provisions as follows:
   *Suggesting suitable teaching-learning methods, devices and strategies based on the psychology of teaching-learning.
   *Suggesting suitable maxims and principles of teaching-learning based in the theory and practice of the technology of teaching-learning.
   *Putting various types of audio-visual aid material and equipment at the disposal of teachers and learners.
   *Providing a variety of instructional and self-learning material suiting the varying needs of teaching-learning situations and individuality of the teachers and learners.

3. Educational Technology III or Systems Approach

• related to the concept of systems engineering which owes it origin to computer science.
• represents the latest concept in technology of education.
• in this approach, educational technology stands for a systematic way to design, carry out and evaluate the total process of education in terms of specific objectives thus, it means a systems approach to organize educational system effectively and economically, keeping in view the educational objectives and available man-material resources,
• The systems approach takes education as a system having a set of inputs which are subjected to a process, designed to produce certain outputs which are intended to meet the stipulated objectives of the system.
• The application of this type of educational technology takes the system of education as a whole and views it in the context of the specified objectives and functioning of its interrelated parts and the whole system under the existing constraints.

Scope and Significance of Educational Technology

1. Analysis of the process of teaching and learning: Educational technology tries to discuss the concept of teaching, analysis of the teaching process, variables of the teaching, phases of teaching, levels of teaching, theories of teaching, principles and maxims of teaching, the concept of learning, the relevance of the theories of learning, the relationship between teaching and learning, the integration of the theories and principles of teaching as well as learning for attaining optimum educational purposes.
2. Spelling out the educational goals or objectives: Educational technology tries to discuss the topics such  as identification of educational needs and aspirations of the community, survey of the resources available for the satisfaction of these needs and aspirations, spelling out the broad educational objectives, analysis of the broad objectives in terms of the specific classroom objectives of teaching and learning, specifications of these objectives in behavioral terms, etc.
3. Development of the curriculum: This aspect of educational technology is concerned with the designing of a suitable curriculum for the achievement of the stipulated objectives, It may describe the ways and means for the selection of suitable learning experiences or contents, organization of these contents in a suitable framework in order to bring out more effective instruction and thus analyze the suitability of the curriculum in relation to the objectives, means and materials, and devices of evaluation.
4. Development of teaching-learning material: This area of educational technology is concerned with the production and development of the suitable teaching-learning material in view of the stipulated objectives, designed curriculum and available resources. Here educational technology tries to discuss the essential techniques of developing software and instructional material like programmed learning material, computer assisted learning material, mass media instruction material, personalized system of instruction, planning for teaching and learning and preparation of lesson plans, etc.
5. Teacher preparation or teacher-learning material: Teacher is a key figure in any process of teaching and learning. Educational technology, therefore, takes care of the proper preparation of teachers for exercising their complex responsibilities. For this purpose, educational technology includes topics like models of student teaching, micro-teaching, stimulated teaching, team-teaching, teacher effectiveness, modification of teacher-behavior, classroom interaction, T-group training and interaction analysis etc.
6. Development and selection of the teaching-learning strategies and tactics: This aspect deals with the central problem of teaching-learning act. Here educational technology tries to describe the ways and means of discovering, selecting and development suitable strategies and tactics of teaching in terms of the optimum learning and available teaching-learning resources the availability of the different types of teaching methods, devices and models of teaching along with their appropriate selection and use for the optimum results.
7. Development, selection and use of the appropriate audio-visual aids: Teaching-learning is greatly influenced and benefitted by the use of appropriate audio-visual aids. Educational technology covers this aspect by discussing various types of audio-visual aids used for the educational purpose, their proper selection suiting to a particular teaching-learning situation, their development and production in view of the available resources and problems faced in a teaching-learning act, audio-visual methods of presentation and dissemination of information, their proper storage and retrieval, and consideration about their cost-effectiveness and effective utilization.
8. Effective utilization of the hardware and mass media: Various sophisticated instruments. equipment, gadgets and communication devices brought through mechanization and electronics revolution are playing and effective role in the attainment of educational objectives by helping the teachers and learners in their respective roles. Educational technology tries to describe these resources in terms of their specific functions and applicability in a particular teaching-learning situation; their selection, proper handling and maintenance; their preparation and development; the cost-effectiveness of these equipment and mass media in education; appropriate teaching-learning material for these appliances; and the ways and means of their optimum use in formal education on the individual and collective basis.
9. To work for the effective utilization of the subsystem of education: Educational technology considers education as a system operating, in a systematic and scientific way, for the achievement of educational objectives. For the coverage of a systematic approach, it tries to include the topics dealing with the theory and principles of a systems approach, explaining education as a system. It also includes study of in different subsystems, their operations and processes in terms of input and output, the needed development in the working of the subsystem in view of the economy output and functionality of the system and the organization and management of the system in an effective way by specifying the respective roles of the man, machine and media in relation to the purpose of teaching and learning. 
10. To provide essential feedback and control through evaluation: Educational technology is essentially concerned with the task of exercising appropriate control over the process of teaching and learning by planning and devising suitable tools and devices for the continuous evaluation of the process and products of the teaching-learning activities. Such evaluation provides an appropriate  feedback to the learners as well as the teachers for bringing necessary improvement at the teacher for bringing necessary improvement at the preparatory and implementation stages of their specific acts. For this purpose, educational technology discusses the ways and means of suitable evaluation techniques and their planning, development selection and appropriate use in relation to the objectives of teaching-learning systems.

Use and Significance of Educational Technology (In the Indian Context)

1. There has been a wider and more effective utilization of radio for broadcasting educational programmes throughout the country.
2. Another significant development in the use of educational technology is concerned with the development of television programmes.
3. The third important area where educational technology has been useful is the problem of training and re-training a large number of school teachers in an effective way.
4. Another application of educational technology in our country is known as distance education.
5. Another major area where educational technology is being used in our country related to language instruction.
6. Another field of operation of educational technology in our country is considered with the correspondence education. 
7. Another use for which educational technology is being put in our country is concerned with the preparation, development and utilization of audio-visual material, and handling as well as maintenance of the hardware appliances and sophisticated gadgets. 
8. In the last trend, educational technology is proving its worth by utilizing the services of computers and advanced form of ICT technology in the field of education.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Branch, Robert C., Instructional Design as a Response on the complexities of Instruction, in N. Venkataiah (Ed.), Educational Technology, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1996

Briggs, Lesile, J. and W. Wager, Hand book of Procedures for the Design of Instruction. 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publication, 1981.

Davies, I,K,, The Management of Learning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

Dick, W. and L. Carry, The Systematic Design of Instruction, 3rd ed., New York: Harper Collins, 1990.

Kulkarni, S.S., Teaching Learning Process: A system Analysis, in C.K. Basu (Ed.), Program Instruction in Industries, Defence, Health and Education, Indian Association for Programmed Instruction, 1969.

Lumbsdaine, A.A., Educational Technology, Programmed Learning and Instructional Science, in E.R. Hilgard (Ed.), Theories of Learning and Instruction, The sixty third year book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I Chicago University Press, 1964. 

Mitra, Shiv K, Proceeding of Symposium on Educational Technology, a Dialogue with Yourself, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970.

Robinson, T.K., Educational Tecnology and Curriculum Development, Scottish Education Department Inspection Bulletin, 49, Nov, 1976, quote by Tucker, R.N>, The Organization and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978.

Report of the interview to Ford Foundation Team of J.R. Gases of the Educational Technology Division OECD, December, 1971. 

Report of the US President's commission of Enquiry as cited by Richard N. Tucker: The Organisation and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978.

Sharma, S.R., Educational Technology, New Delhi: Mohit Publications, 2003,

Tucker, R.N. The Organisation and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978

Unwin, D. (Ed.) Media and Methods: Instructional Technology in Higher Education, London: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

Vedanayagam, E.G., quoted by S.K. Mangal, Foundations of Educational Technology, Lundhana Tandon Publication, 2001.

Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London Methuen, 1945.

Working definition adopted by the Scottish Council for Education Technology, as quoted by R.N. Tucker, The Organization and Management of Educational Technology, London: Croom Helm, 1978.

Note: I do not own any of the content of this post, this is for educational purposes only.